Islam - The Life of Muhammad Essay Example for Free

Islam The Life of Muhammad Essay A prophet is someone through whom Allah speaks. The Quran names 25 prophets, but tradition says there have been 124,000 in all. For Muslims, Muhammad in Allahs last prophet, known as the seal of the Prophets. The exact date of Muhammads birth in Mecca is unknown, but it is thought to have been no later than 570 AD. His father was called Abdullah, which means servant of God and his mother Aminah- peaceful. Both were members of the Hashim clan, a sub-division of the Quraysh tribe which had lately abandoned its nomadic life as desert Bedouins and risen to dominate the trading city of Mecca. Muhammad had a sorrowful early childhood. The name Muhammad is said to have been given to him as a result of a dream his grandfather had. He is also said to have had other names, such as Abul-Qasim, Ahmad, and Mustafa. There were many legends about Muhammad. One said that before his birth his mother Aminah heard a voice telling her the child would be a great leader. Another told of a heavy shower of rain, a blessing that ended a long drought. Yet another legend was that two angels removed Muhammads heart, washed it clean, then weighed it against first one man, then ten, then a hundred , then a thousand. Finally they said Let it be. Even if you set the whole community in the scale, he would still outweigh it. These stories show that Allah was preparing Muhammad for his prohetetic mission in future. His father was dead by the time of his birth and his mother died before he was six, meaning he was raised as an orphan. According to Quraysh law he was to be given to a Bedouin foster mother and sent of into the desert, and would be unable to inherit from his fathers estate. So almost from the beginning of his life he was both poor and something of an outcast from Meccan society. This shows that muslims are taught to trust in Allahs goodness, and to accept death as a stage in their life and not the end of it. It is, however, known for certain that when he was eight Muhammad was sent to live with his uncle, a merchant called Abu Talib. From the age of 12 Abu Talib took him with him on his long trading trips, which sometimes lasted for many months. A number of stories surround Muhammad in this period of his life. One tells how he and his uncle stopped at a Christian monastery on their travels, and a monk named Bahira recognised the mark of a prophet on Muhammads shoulder.His future prophetic status was indicated by certain marks on his body and by miraculous signs in nature. Muhammad first worked as a camel driver, but as both his horizons and business acumen expanded, he became known as The Trusted One (al-Amin) for being fair in his dealings and honoring his obligations. The most important hadith about his early life, and the ones with some of the largest degree of unanimity, are about a trip to Syria, where he was recognised by a Christian monk as Shiloh the non-Jewish Prophet whose coming was foretold in the book of Genesis. It seems that Muhammad, from an early age, believed himself to be Shiloh, the first and last non-Jewish Prophet who would bring the final message and warning to mankind in the last days before the end of the world. It may have been for this reason that he became something of a mystic, spending long periods of isolated meditation in the desert. From his early twenties onwards he began to have religious experiences and visions of various sorts, but was on the whole confused by their significance. He is also reported to have become a expert on the Jewish and Christian religions and to have engaged in long religious debates with both monotheists and pagans. At the age of 25 Muhammads social status changed markedly. He had been employed by a wealthy widow, Khadijah, to run her trading interests and, after they had prospered, she asked him to marry her. He accepted, even though she was to prove faithful, understanding and supportive wife and the marriage was happy. They had six children-two sons, Qusim and Abdullah, and four daughters, Zainab, Ruqaiyyah, Umm Kulthum and Fatima. The two boys died in infancy. The couple had only one surviving child, a daughter called Fatima who in later life became a fanatical Muslim. After her death he had several others, perhaps the best known of whom was the young Aisha. Muhammads uncle Abu Talib fell on hard times, and Muhammad repaid his kindness by taking responsibility for his little son Ali. Another child in the house was Zaid ibn Haritha, a slave boy given to Khadijah as a present. One day Zaids father, who had been searching for him for years, discovered where he was and offered to buy him back. Zaid was asked what he wished to do and chose to stay with Muhammad. Muhammad was so moved that he freed the boy instantly, and raised him as his own son. At that time Mecca was tumultuous melting pot of Christianity, Judaism, and the various pagan religions practiced by the desert tribes and Meccan clans. Khadijahs family had been exposed to monotheism, which was growing in popularity in its various forms and it is known that her uncle was a practicing Christian. In contrast, the pagan clan cults of the Qursysh in the city had become decadent, especially in their shameless worship of material goods and worldly wealth and the consequent huge disparities between rich and poor, which Muhammad, with his varied background, was able to appreciate. These problems, springing from the difficult transition of the Quraysh from nomadic poverty to sedentary merchant wealth, concerned him greatly, and social injustice-especially the treatment of orphans like himself-is the theme of many of the early surahs of the Quran. The cults of the pagan desert Bedouin clans, who visited Mecca only occasionally, were equally divisive, degenerate and cruel. Human sacrifice and female infanticide were widely practiced. Each Arab tribe had its own gods and worshiped idols. The most important of these was the House of God (Kabah), located in Mecca itself. When Muhammad was a young man it contained 360 pagan idols, worshipped by dozens of separate tribes and clans. His clan, the Hashemites, had the honour of guarding it, through tradition which held that the monument had been re-built by their ancestors Ibrahim and Ismail after the original- believed to have been built by Adam at the beginning of time- had fallen into disrepair. The Quyrashs wealth was based on the dozens of pagan cults who used the Kabah as their central shrine. They sold idols, and Meccas position as a trading city was largely based on contacts made with the visiting tribes. New religions were welcomed as good for business. At first Islam was seen as just another money-making cult and Muhammad was encouraged to use the Kaba alongside the others in a spirit of fair and toleration. But in 613 Muhammad began preaching to the public at large, rejecting all other religions, demanding the removal of idols from the Kaba and therefore threatening trade. As Quyrash hostility grew Muhammad showed himself to be skillful politician as well as a learned theologian. Steadily he gathered around him the elders of minor clans and middle ranking merchants through preaching a return to the religion of Ibrahim. Whilst the Quyrash continued to ridicule him, called him a madman and an impostor. Muhammad had begun to receive Allahs final message to mankind in the form of the Quran through miraculous revelations which did not come until he was by the standards of the time- already an old man. The Quran Muhammad received his first revelation during the month of Ramadan in the year 610 AD when he was about 40 years old. He was engaged in one of his regular periods of solitary meditation in a cave known as Hira near the top of Mount Jabal Nur, near Mecca, when he received a visitation from the angel Gabriel(Jibreel). Muhammad had experienced religious visions before, but this was quite different. Angel Gabriel (Jibreel) commanded him to Recite in the name of your Lord, and the Prophet lost control of himself and, Muslims believe, began to speak the actual words of Allah. Eventually he was told to recite what is now the beginning of Chapter 96 of the Koran: Recite in the name of your Lord who created, created man from blood congealed. Recite! Your Lord is the most beneficent, who taught by the pen, taught men that which they did not know. After a short period during which he received no further revelations, they then began again and continued until the end of his life. In the 23 remaining years of his life Muhammad received a total of 114 separate revelations which were compiled as the Quran after his death. Muhammad was illiterate so he would repeat each revelation afterwards. Some were written down on whatever was available, from parchment to palm leaves and animals bones, but the majority, in the tradition of the times, were memorized. A year after Muhammads death they were collected together by his secretary, Zayd, under the supervision of a committee, shown to many of the Prophets companions, and agreed to be accurate. But by about thirty years after his death a number of different versions were circulating and being recited, so a definitive canonical version was issued and sent to the four main Islam cities of Basra, Damascus, Kufh and Medina. Two of these original copies still exist today. One is in Tashkent in Soviet Uzbekistan and other is in the Topkapi palace in Istanbul, Turkey. The text is divided into 114 surahs, each containing the words of one revelation. The number of verses, or ayahs, in each surah varies from three to 286 and totals 6,239. Each has a title, and 86 have sub-headings indicating they were received in Mecca, whilst another 28 were received in Medina. The Meccan surahs are shorter, more mystical and warn about the dangers of paganism, marked by vigorous semi-poetic language, and concerned with warnings that men would inevitably be judged by God for their behaviour in this world and severely punished if they did not mend their ways. The Medinan surahs are in general longer, less urgent in tone, and deal in great detail with aspects of Allahs law such as the rules for declaring war, accepting converts, divorce proceedings and the mandatory punishments for various crimes more concerned with the solut ion of practical problems facing him and his followers. The structure of the Quran is unusual and, apparently, illogical. In general the longer Medinan surahs, given last, are at the front of the Book and shorter Meccan surahs, the earliest, at the back. There is no logical explanation for their order but at the same time Western scholars, attempting to reorganise them on this basis, have found that no other order works without splitting the surahs up into scattered verses. Sunni Muslims hold that the order was dictated by Jibree to give the Quran an esoteric inner meaning reflecting the Divine rather than human order of things. Acceptance of every word of the Quran as the literal word of Allah is a binding obligation on all Muslims. The idea that Muhammad was the author of the Quran, or any part of it, is rejected absolutely. At the heart of the Quran is the simple, repetitive warning that mankind must renounce paganism, accept Allah as the one God of all mankind and live according to his laws. The message is directly addressed to the pa gans, Jews and Christians of Mecca, amongst whom Muhammad lived, complete with threats of dire consequences if they failed to mend their polytheistic ways. The first revelation received by Muhammad deals with this very theme. In another early revelation Allah openly threatens Muhammads brother-in-law Abu Lahab, who, as head of his Hashemite clan, had disowned Muhammad and annulled the marriage between his son and Muhammads daughter Fatima. Allah also shows himself to be equally angry with Abu Lahabs wife, who had ridiculed the idea of Muhammads Prophethood. The Hijah Muhammads flight into exile is the most significant episode in the Prophets life apart from the revelations he received which made up the Quran. It marks the point in the Prophecy when Allah demanded not just a reform of the religious life of Mecca, but a total break with it. It also marks the start of jihad (Holy War both spiritual and physical) against the pagan Quyrash and, ultimately, all those oppressing Muslims and opposing by force the spread of Allahs word. The date of this declaration of war was later chosen as the first day of the Muslim calendar, with 622 the first year of the Age of Hijrah. By this time most of Medinas population regarded themselves as his followers. Many, in addition, had signed military treaties with his followers in Mecca promising military aid. They now eagerly awaited Muhammads declaring of war. But instead, after receiving fresh revelations, he decided to first convert the nomadic Bedouins in the surrounding desert. Between 622 and 628 Muhammad set in motion the biggest tribal avalanche Arabia had ever seen. The tribal chieftains rapidly converted to Islam and joined Muhammads army. The process was helped by Islams being an entirely new religion free from the feuding assocations of both the localised pagan cults and the foreign monotheist doctrines of Judaism and Christainity. Muhammad showed himself to be a brilliant military leader in early skirmishes with the Quyrash and this, along with further revelations promising Allahs support and certain victory, is likely to have persuaded yet more shayks to join. In just six years Muhammad assembled an army of 10,000 Arabs a huge force for those times and marched with the people of Medina against Mecca. The force was so overwhelming the city was taken without resistance. Muhammad issued a general amnesty to the Quyrash and urged them, without pressure, to convert to Islam, which they slowly did. The conquest of Mecca also gave him control of the Kabah and he resumed his preaching to pagan pilgrims as they visited the shrine. Conversion was rapid and only nine months after the occupation of Mecca his army had grown to 30,000. More clans and tribes converted to Islam. Muhammad died at Mecca on June 8th 11 AH/632 AD. Respect is shown towards Muhammad by saying peace be upon him (PBUH). He was respected as a man who was close to God, who thought deeply and was kind and wise. Muhammad had known the Kaba all his life, with its many shines. He had also known the greed, exploitation, lack of compassion of the rich merchants. Muhammad spent his life searching for spiritual guidance, drawing ever closer to God. Islam is not just a matter of ritual prayers or fasting or feasts. It is the conscious bringing of every moment of the day, every decision, every detail of the muslims thoughts and actions, into deliberate line with what they accept as being the will of Allah. How is the will of Allah known? The muslim bases all decisions on the revealed words of the Holy Quran, the messages that were delivered, over a period of 23 years, to the inspired prophet Muhammad. Not one word in the Quran is believed by muslims to be the thought or teaching of Muhammad himself- although he is refered above all human beings as one od the most perfect of Allahs messengers. Other messengers were Abraham, Moses, Jesus and, in fact, at least 24,000 prohets. Muhammads ministry was not based on any mircles other than the receiving of the Quran. Muhammad is so important to muslims because be was the last prophet, the seal of all that was revealed to the prophets before him. Muslims family life The Quran speaks about the family more than any other topic and deals with the rights and responsibilities of husbands and wives, divorce, orphans, inheritance and so on. The Sunnah also deals with relationships within the family: in one tradition, the Prophet says that a man is the guardian of his family and a women is guardian of her husbands home and children. Two particular Quranic verses underline the Islamic view of the family: . . . he created for you mates that you may dwell in tranquillity with them and he has put love and mercy between your hearts . . . 30:21 We created you from a simple pair of a male and a female. . . that you may know each other (not that you may dispise each other) 49:13 This declares the essential equality between men and women but Islam does not see this as contradicting different roles played by men and women. For example, muslim men carry the heavy burden of family maintenance and are supposed to be the only, or the main, breadwinners supporting not only their wives and children but other married or widowed women in the family. If a mans wife does not wish to live with his family or anyone else, he must respect her wishes. The major responsibility which falls to the woman is creating a harmonious family atmosphere and bringing up the children. Women may kake up paid work outside the home but it is not expect ed of them as part of the equal partnership and many muslims feel women should only do so if there is a real need for the money. Mature muslim men and women are allowed to mix at work, in public places and social gatherings. Divorce Islam allows divorce if circumstances warrant or necessitate it. Islam has permitted divorce reluctantly, neither liking nor recommending it. The Prophet of Islam has said: Among lawful things, divorce is most disliked by Allah Islam has not made it necessary that the grounds of divorce should be publicized. It, however; does not mean that Islam views divorce lightly. In fact, publicity of grounds may not be of any positive consequence. The grounds may not be pronounced but genuine. On the other hand, the grounds may be stated and may in reality be false. Islam does not also want washing dirty linen of private affairs in public or in the court except in exceptional circumstances. It is for this reason that court comes in as a last resort in the Islamic scheme of separation of husband and wife. The Quran states as regards grounds of divorce in very general terms: And if you fear that the two (i.e husband and wife) may not be able to keep the limits ordered by Allah, there is no blame on either of them if she redeems herself (from the marriage tie) (2 : 229). The general ground of divorce in the Quran, therefore, is hopeless failure of one or both parties to discharge their marital duties and to consort with each other in kindness, peace and compassion. Long absence of husband without any information, long imprisonment, refusal to provide for wife, impotence etc. are some of the grounds on which wife can ask for divorce. Either party may take steps to divorce in case of chronicle disease, insanity, deceptive misrepresentation during marriage contract, desertion etc. A Muslim male is allowed three chances, that is to say, acts of divorce on three different occasions provided that each divorce is pronounced during the time when the wife is in the period of purity. A husband may divorce his wife once and let the Iddat (the period of waiting after divorce) pass. During the waiting period the two have the option of being reconciled. If however the waiting period passes without reconciliation, they stand fully divorced. If after the first divorce the husband is reconciled with his wife but the hostility and conflict begins all over again, he may divorce her a second time in the same manner as stated above. In this case also he can return to her during the Iddat (or waiting period). If however, after second reconciliation, he divorces the wife the third time, he can not take back the wife during the Iddat. She is totally prohibited for him. The lady, thereafter can marry any person she likes according to her choice. The wife can divorce her husband if this condition is stipulated in the marriage contract. This kind of divorce is called Delegated Divorce (Talaq Taffiz). Marriage can also be dissolved through mutual consent. This is called Khula in the technical language of Islamic law. Marriage can also be dissolved by judicial process through the court on complaint of the wife on the grounds explained before. One of the consequences of the divorce is the commencement of waiting period for the wife. This usually lasts three months. If there is a pregnancy, it lasts as long as pregnancy lasts. The waiting period is basically a term of probation during which reconciliation can be attempted. It is also required to establish whether the wife has conceived. It also allows time for planning the future. Maintenance of wife during the waiting period is on husband. The wife can not be expelled from her place of residence and he can not in any way harass her. These will constitute moral as well as criminal offence. In case of divorce, the young children remain in the custody of their divorced mother. However, the father has to provide the cost of maintenance of young children though they remain under the custody of mother. Islamic law of divorce is based on practical considerations. The process of separation is basically a matter of husband and wife. However; when conflict arises, attempts should be made for reconciliation. It has not made judicial process obligatory in divorce for reasons explained earlier. The intervention of court has nowhere reduced the number of divorce. Judicial process in Islam is the last resort in so far as divorce is concerned. Islamic law on divorce if followed in true spirit will enhance the dignity of man and woman, reduce conflict and ensure justice. The Holy Quran explicitly prohibits the divorcing husbands from taking back their marriage gifts no matter how expensive or valuable these gifts might be In the case of the wife choosing to end the marriage, she has to return the marriage gifts or money to her husband. Returning the marriage gifts in this case is a fair compensation for the husband who is keen to keep his wife while she chooses to leave him. But the majority of ulamma have agreed that to act unfairly against the husband is not allowed and the marriage cannot be annulled by such way. The Holy Quran has instructed Muslim men not to take back any of the gifts they have given to their wives except in the case of the wife choosing to dissolve the marriage. Also, a woman came to the Prophet Muhammad seeking the dissolution of her marriage, she told the Prophet that she did not have any complaints against her husbands character or manners. Her only problem was that she honestly did not like him to the extent of not being ab le to live with him any longer. The Prophet asked her: Would you give him his garden (the marriage gift he had given her) back? she said: Yes. The Prophet then instructed the man to take back his garden and accept the dissolution of the marriage. The children usually stay with their mother unless she is shown to be incapable or unsuitable but she loses the right of custody of her children if she remarries. Marriage The most important ingredients in a Muslim marriage are shared values and beliefs, so that even if a couple come from different cultures and backgrounds they possess the same basic world view, attitudes and habits which will bind them together. Many Muslims seem to marry their cousins, Islam neither encourages nor refuses this practise. The prophets seventh wife, Zaimab bint Jahsh, was his cousin, but he only married her when she was 39 after his foster son Zaid divorced her. Cousin marriages inbreeds genetic disorders, and makes it very hard for a couple to divorce from a failed marriage if other close relatives will be offended. Muslim boys may marry Christians and Jews, but Muslim girls are not permitted to marry non- Muslims because in Islam the children have to take the religion of the father, and so would bec ome non-Muslims. The prohet said : A woman should only be married to a person who is good enough for her or compatible to her. The prophet permitted marriages between people of vastly different social status and financial backgrounds, knowing it was not these factors which made for compatibility, but what they were like in their hearts. Do not marry only for a persons looks, their beauty might become the cause of moral decline. Do not marry for wealth, since this may become the cause of disobedience. Marry rather on the grounds of religious devotion. ( Haddith) Islam sees marriage as the only moral and legal status for a sexual relationship as it provides in public for the security and well being of man and woman. The ceremony itself is extremely simple and takes the form of a basic contract set in a social gathering. It can take place anywhere usually in a home in Muslim countries but in Britain it is most likely to be in a mosque. The imam does not need to be present and there is no fixed formula but it must be clear that both man and woman agree to the marriage and there may be readings from the Quran on the theme of married life. The contract- Aqd nikah- is written, as well as spoken, and bride and groom sign three copies. They keep one each and, in a Muslim country, the third is kept by officials. The Quran requires that the groom give the wife mahr- a sum of money or property or some other gift of value. It remains hers, whatever happens, and they agree between them what it is to be and when it is to be given. Jihad Arabic for exerting ones utmost efforts to a determined objective, such objective normally being the struggle against anything that is not good. Two kinds of jihad traditionally exist for mainstream Muslims: the greater (al-jihad al-akbar) and the lesser ( al-jihad al-asghar). The greater jihad is also known as jihad al-nafs, and is understood as an individuals inner, spiritual struggle against vice, passion, and ignorance. The lesser jihad is defined as meaning holy war against infidel (non-Muslim) lands and subjects. It has both legal and doctrinal significance in that it is prescribed by the Koran and mainstream Muslim hadiths (recorded sayings and actions ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad and accorded a status on a par with revelation). Holy war is the sole form of war that is theoretically permissable in mainstream Islam. Muslim law has traditionally divided up the world into dar al-Islam (abode of Islam) and dar al- harb (abode of war, that is, of non-Muslim rule). As Islam is the last, most superior and universal of mans divinely ordained religions, it is believed that the entire world must ultimately surrender to its r ule and law, if not its faith. Until that time, a jihad against non-Muslim neighbours and neighbouring lands is the duty of all adult, male, and able-bodied Muslims. According to this traditional view, Muslims who die in jihad automatically become martyrs of the faith and are awarded a special place in Paradise. According to the law-books, two kinds of non-Muslim enemies exist, kafir (pagans) and ahl al- kitab (people of the book). The term people of the book originally meant only Jews and Christians, but later on it included other groups such as followers of Zoroastrianism. People of the book need only submit to Muslim political authority to avoid or end jihad and may keep their original faith: their status, defined as dhimmi (a protected non-Muslim), is inferior to that of a Muslim and they must pay the prescribed jizya (poll tax). As for pagans, that is, those whom Muslims do not recognize as a people of the book, such as Buddhists and Hindus, they must either convert to Islam or suffer execution. This drastic alternative, however, was rarely enforced in practice. There can be no going back for a convert to Islam-be that person a dhimmi or pagan-since it is a capital offence to abandon Islam, even for a former religion with a recognized revelation. However, ways of avoiding the strict enforcement of the law were often found. Jihad can also be defensive, that is, for the purpose of protecting Muslim lands from non-Muslim incursions such as, for example, the crusades of the Christians in the Holy Land during the Middle Ages or the Spanish Reconquista. Some modern Muslim scholars have stressed the defensive aspect of jihad above others. In contrast to the Sunnis, some Muslim groups like the Imami and Bohora-Ismaili Shiites are forbidden from participating in offensive jihad. This is because for both sects the only person legitimately capable of conducting an offensive jihad is their Imam, and he is presently in occultation (that is, in hiding and incommunicado until the end of time). The two sects, however, are permitted participation in defensive jihad. I have been asked to evaluate the following statement The Quran would be more useful to everyone if it were translated into modern English. Whether the Quran may be translated from its original Arabic into another language, and, if so, under what circumstances a translation may be used, has also been a matter of dispute. Nevertheless, it has been translated by Muslims and non-Muslims into a variety of languages. Today there are many versions available in English and the other major languages of the world. Although it can now be read in at least 40 languages, all translations lose part of the inspiration and meaning, and are not treated with the same respect as the original. Since the Quran is believed to be from Allah, every word, every letter, is sacred to muslims. It is therefore considered very important to keep the Quran in the language in which it was first spoken i.e. Arabic. Muslims were taught to recite it, and it must still be learnt in Arabic. As Islam spread from Arabia, its language was adopted by a number of Islamic countries, and is still spoken in these countries today. Muslims in these countries should find the Quran quite easy to read, even though the style of modern Arabic has naturally changed since Muhammads time. In other countries, muslims need to learn enough Arabic to take part in their worship and to read the Quran. You can find translations of the Quran for people who do not know Arabic, or copies with both Arabic and another language for those who do not have Arabic as their first language, but muslims do not accept these translations as proper Qurans. The main argument used to defend the Divine authorship of the Quran is the incomparable quality of writing. Much of it is composed in rhyming Arabic and the language is particularly beautiful and graceful. The surahs were given in Arabic and, since it would be a sin to alter the word of Allah, Arabic remains the sacred language of Islam. Non- Arabic speaking muslims can use translations but the Quran is so important to them that many learn Arabic just so they can read it in its original form. Muslims and non-believers alike agree the full power and beauty of its writing can only be appreciated in the original. But for muslims it goes further than that. Translations can only be interpretations which cannot truly say what is said in Arabic. The combination of the words and rhythms in the original language- the way the Quran sounds when recited- is also an important part of its power. Muslims think of the Quran as a complete philosophy, a comprehensive description of the universe and the entirety of the law by which people must live. The longer and later Medina surahs stress Allahs merciful nature more fully, with extensive friendly practical advice on personal and family matters. The Quran is also the focus of Islamic art. Many individuals copies of the Book are major works of art in their own right with sublime Arabic calligraphy on superb hand-made paper, and high quality decorative leather and metal work. Figurative art is forbidden by classical Islam, especially the creation of images of Allah and the Prophets, and the astonishingly fine decorative art found in many mosques is largely based on Arabic calligraphy, woven into patterns repeating passages from the Book. Even the most sceptical non-believer, Muslims insist, is forced to admit that the Quran is a book of immense beauty and importance not least because it has now almost certain become the most widely read and memorised book in the world. The preface to one of the most widely available Quran in English, the Tahrike Tarsile translation, puts it like this: The Qurans miracle lies in its ability to offer at least something to non-believers and everything to believers. Learning large parts of the the Quran by heart is an important part of Muslim religious devotion and children start memorising it at an early age. In many Muslim countries learning the Quran by heart forms the basic curriculum of primary school education. Muslims who memorise its contents in their entirety are given the honourable title of al-hafiz.

Islam - The Life of Muhammad Essay Example for Free

Islam The Life of Muhammad Essay A prophet is someone through whom Allah speaks. The Quran names 25 prophets, but tradition says there have been 124,000 in all. For Muslims, Muhammad in Allahs last prophet, known as the seal of the Prophets. The exact date of Muhammads birth in Mecca is unknown, but it is thought to have been no later than 570 AD. His father was called Abdullah, which means servant of God and his mother Aminah- peaceful. Both were members of the Hashim clan, a sub-division of the Quraysh tribe which had lately abandoned its nomadic life as desert Bedouins and risen to dominate the trading city of Mecca. Muhammad had a sorrowful early childhood. The name Muhammad is said to have been given to him as a result of a dream his grandfather had. He is also said to have had other names, such as Abul-Qasim, Ahmad, and Mustafa. There were many legends about Muhammad. One said that before his birth his mother Aminah heard a voice telling her the child would be a great leader. Another told of a heavy shower of rain, a blessing that ended a long drought. Yet another legend was that two angels removed Muhammads heart, washed it clean, then weighed it against first one man, then ten, then a hundred , then a thousand. Finally they said Let it be. Even if you set the whole community in the scale, he would still outweigh it. These stories show that Allah was preparing Muhammad for his prohetetic mission in future. His father was dead by the time of his birth and his mother died before he was six, meaning he was raised as an orphan. According to Quraysh law he was to be given to a Bedouin foster mother and sent of into the desert, and would be unable to inherit from his fathers estate. So almost from the beginning of his life he was both poor and something of an outcast from Meccan society. This shows that muslims are taught to trust in Allahs goodness, and to accept death as a stage in their life and not the end of it. It is, however, known for certain that when he was eight Muhammad was sent to live with his uncle, a merchant called Abu Talib. From the age of 12 Abu Talib took him with him on his long trading trips, which sometimes lasted for many months. A number of stories surround Muhammad in this period of his life. One tells how he and his uncle stopped at a Christian monastery on their travels, and a monk named Bahira recognised the mark of a prophet on Muhammads shoulder.His future prophetic status was indicated by certain marks on his body and by miraculous signs in nature. Muhammad first worked as a camel driver, but as both his horizons and business acumen expanded, he became known as The Trusted One (al-Amin) for being fair in his dealings and honoring his obligations. The most important hadith about his early life, and the ones with some of the largest degree of unanimity, are about a trip to Syria, where he was recognised by a Christian monk as Shiloh the non-Jewish Prophet whose coming was foretold in the book of Genesis. It seems that Muhammad, from an early age, believed himself to be Shiloh, the first and last non-Jewish Prophet who would bring the final message and warning to mankind in the last days before the end of the world. It may have been for this reason that he became something of a mystic, spending long periods of isolated meditation in the desert. From his early twenties onwards he began to have religious experiences and visions of various sorts, but was on the whole confused by their significance. He is also reported to have become a expert on the Jewish and Christian religions and to have engaged in long religious debates with both monotheists and pagans. At the age of 25 Muhammads social status changed markedly. He had been employed by a wealthy widow, Khadijah, to run her trading interests and, after they had prospered, she asked him to marry her. He accepted, even though she was to prove faithful, understanding and supportive wife and the marriage was happy. They had six children-two sons, Qusim and Abdullah, and four daughters, Zainab, Ruqaiyyah, Umm Kulthum and Fatima. The two boys died in infancy. The couple had only one surviving child, a daughter called Fatima who in later life became a fanatical Muslim. After her death he had several others, perhaps the best known of whom was the young Aisha. Muhammads uncle Abu Talib fell on hard times, and Muhammad repaid his kindness by taking responsibility for his little son Ali. Another child in the house was Zaid ibn Haritha, a slave boy given to Khadijah as a present. One day Zaids father, who had been searching for him for years, discovered where he was and offered to buy him back. Zaid was asked what he wished to do and chose to stay with Muhammad. Muhammad was so moved that he freed the boy instantly, and raised him as his own son. At that time Mecca was tumultuous melting pot of Christianity, Judaism, and the various pagan religions practiced by the desert tribes and Meccan clans. Khadijahs family had been exposed to monotheism, which was growing in popularity in its various forms and it is known that her uncle was a practicing Christian. In contrast, the pagan clan cults of the Qursysh in the city had become decadent, especially in their shameless worship of material goods and worldly wealth and the consequent huge disparities between rich and poor, which Muhammad, with his varied background, was able to appreciate. These problems, springing from the difficult transition of the Quraysh from nomadic poverty to sedentary merchant wealth, concerned him greatly, and social injustice-especially the treatment of orphans like himself-is the theme of many of the early surahs of the Quran. The cults of the pagan desert Bedouin clans, who visited Mecca only occasionally, were equally divisive, degenerate and cruel. Human sacrifice and female infanticide were widely practiced. Each Arab tribe had its own gods and worshiped idols. The most important of these was the House of God (Kabah), located in Mecca itself. When Muhammad was a young man it contained 360 pagan idols, worshipped by dozens of separate tribes and clans. His clan, the Hashemites, had the honour of guarding it, through tradition which held that the monument had been re-built by their ancestors Ibrahim and Ismail after the original- believed to have been built by Adam at the beginning of time- had fallen into disrepair. The Quyrashs wealth was based on the dozens of pagan cults who used the Kabah as their central shrine. They sold idols, and Meccas position as a trading city was largely based on contacts made with the visiting tribes. New religions were welcomed as good for business. At first Islam was seen as just another money-making cult and Muhammad was encouraged to use the Kaba alongside the others in a spirit of fair and toleration. But in 613 Muhammad began preaching to the public at large, rejecting all other religions, demanding the removal of idols from the Kaba and therefore threatening trade. As Quyrash hostility grew Muhammad showed himself to be skillful politician as well as a learned theologian. Steadily he gathered around him the elders of minor clans and middle ranking merchants through preaching a return to the religion of Ibrahim. Whilst the Quyrash continued to ridicule him, called him a madman and an impostor. Muhammad had begun to receive Allahs final message to mankind in the form of the Quran through miraculous revelations which did not come until he was by the standards of the time- already an old man. The Quran Muhammad received his first revelation during the month of Ramadan in the year 610 AD when he was about 40 years old. He was engaged in one of his regular periods of solitary meditation in a cave known as Hira near the top of Mount Jabal Nur, near Mecca, when he received a visitation from the angel Gabriel(Jibreel). Muhammad had experienced religious visions before, but this was quite different. Angel Gabriel (Jibreel) commanded him to Recite in the name of your Lord, and the Prophet lost control of himself and, Muslims believe, began to speak the actual words of Allah. Eventually he was told to recite what is now the beginning of Chapter 96 of the Koran: Recite in the name of your Lord who created, created man from blood congealed. Recite! Your Lord is the most beneficent, who taught by the pen, taught men that which they did not know. After a short period during which he received no further revelations, they then began again and continued until the end of his life. In the 23 remaining years of his life Muhammad received a total of 114 separate revelations which were compiled as the Quran after his death. Muhammad was illiterate so he would repeat each revelation afterwards. Some were written down on whatever was available, from parchment to palm leaves and animals bones, but the majority, in the tradition of the times, were memorized. A year after Muhammads death they were collected together by his secretary, Zayd, under the supervision of a committee, shown to many of the Prophets companions, and agreed to be accurate. But by about thirty years after his death a number of different versions were circulating and being recited, so a definitive canonical version was issued and sent to the four main Islam cities of Basra, Damascus, Kufh and Medina. Two of these original copies still exist today. One is in Tashkent in Soviet Uzbekistan and other is in the Topkapi palace in Istanbul, Turkey. The text is divided into 114 surahs, each containing the words of one revelation. The number of verses, or ayahs, in each surah varies from three to 286 and totals 6,239. Each has a title, and 86 have sub-headings indicating they were received in Mecca, whilst another 28 were received in Medina. The Meccan surahs are shorter, more mystical and warn about the dangers of paganism, marked by vigorous semi-poetic language, and concerned with warnings that men would inevitably be judged by God for their behaviour in this world and severely punished if they did not mend their ways. The Medinan surahs are in general longer, less urgent in tone, and deal in great detail with aspects of Allahs law such as the rules for declaring war, accepting converts, divorce proceedings and the mandatory punishments for various crimes more concerned with the solut ion of practical problems facing him and his followers. The structure of the Quran is unusual and, apparently, illogical. In general the longer Medinan surahs, given last, are at the front of the Book and shorter Meccan surahs, the earliest, at the back. There is no logical explanation for their order but at the same time Western scholars, attempting to reorganise them on this basis, have found that no other order works without splitting the surahs up into scattered verses. Sunni Muslims hold that the order was dictated by Jibree to give the Quran an esoteric inner meaning reflecting the Divine rather than human order of things. Acceptance of every word of the Quran as the literal word of Allah is a binding obligation on all Muslims. The idea that Muhammad was the author of the Quran, or any part of it, is rejected absolutely. At the heart of the Quran is the simple, repetitive warning that mankind must renounce paganism, accept Allah as the one God of all mankind and live according to his laws. The message is directly addressed to the pa gans, Jews and Christians of Mecca, amongst whom Muhammad lived, complete with threats of dire consequences if they failed to mend their polytheistic ways. The first revelation received by Muhammad deals with this very theme. In another early revelation Allah openly threatens Muhammads brother-in-law Abu Lahab, who, as head of his Hashemite clan, had disowned Muhammad and annulled the marriage between his son and Muhammads daughter Fatima. Allah also shows himself to be equally angry with Abu Lahabs wife, who had ridiculed the idea of Muhammads Prophethood. The Hijah Muhammads flight into exile is the most significant episode in the Prophets life apart from the revelations he received which made up the Quran. It marks the point in the Prophecy when Allah demanded not just a reform of the religious life of Mecca, but a total break with it. It also marks the start of jihad (Holy War both spiritual and physical) against the pagan Quyrash and, ultimately, all those oppressing Muslims and opposing by force the spread of Allahs word. The date of this declaration of war was later chosen as the first day of the Muslim calendar, with 622 the first year of the Age of Hijrah. By this time most of Medinas population regarded themselves as his followers. Many, in addition, had signed military treaties with his followers in Mecca promising military aid. They now eagerly awaited Muhammads declaring of war. But instead, after receiving fresh revelations, he decided to first convert the nomadic Bedouins in the surrounding desert. Between 622 and 628 Muhammad set in motion the biggest tribal avalanche Arabia had ever seen. The tribal chieftains rapidly converted to Islam and joined Muhammads army. The process was helped by Islams being an entirely new religion free from the feuding assocations of both the localised pagan cults and the foreign monotheist doctrines of Judaism and Christainity. Muhammad showed himself to be a brilliant military leader in early skirmishes with the Quyrash and this, along with further revelations promising Allahs support and certain victory, is likely to have persuaded yet more shayks to join. In just six years Muhammad assembled an army of 10,000 Arabs a huge force for those times and marched with the people of Medina against Mecca. The force was so overwhelming the city was taken without resistance. Muhammad issued a general amnesty to the Quyrash and urged them, without pressure, to convert to Islam, which they slowly did. The conquest of Mecca also gave him control of the Kabah and he resumed his preaching to pagan pilgrims as they visited the shrine. Conversion was rapid and only nine months after the occupation of Mecca his army had grown to 30,000. More clans and tribes converted to Islam. Muhammad died at Mecca on June 8th 11 AH/632 AD. Respect is shown towards Muhammad by saying peace be upon him (PBUH). He was respected as a man who was close to God, who thought deeply and was kind and wise. Muhammad had known the Kaba all his life, with its many shines. He had also known the greed, exploitation, lack of compassion of the rich merchants. Muhammad spent his life searching for spiritual guidance, drawing ever closer to God. Islam is not just a matter of ritual prayers or fasting or feasts. It is the conscious bringing of every moment of the day, every decision, every detail of the muslims thoughts and actions, into deliberate line with what they accept as being the will of Allah. How is the will of Allah known? The muslim bases all decisions on the revealed words of the Holy Quran, the messages that were delivered, over a period of 23 years, to the inspired prophet Muhammad. Not one word in the Quran is believed by muslims to be the thought or teaching of Muhammad himself- although he is refered above all human beings as one od the most perfect of Allahs messengers. Other messengers were Abraham, Moses, Jesus and, in fact, at least 24,000 prohets. Muhammads ministry was not based on any mircles other than the receiving of the Quran. Muhammad is so important to muslims because be was the last prophet, the seal of all that was revealed to the prophets before him. Muslims family life The Quran speaks about the family more than any other topic and deals with the rights and responsibilities of husbands and wives, divorce, orphans, inheritance and so on. The Sunnah also deals with relationships within the family: in one tradition, the Prophet says that a man is the guardian of his family and a women is guardian of her husbands home and children. Two particular Quranic verses underline the Islamic view of the family: . . . he created for you mates that you may dwell in tranquillity with them and he has put love and mercy between your hearts . . . 30:21 We created you from a simple pair of a male and a female. . . that you may know each other (not that you may dispise each other) 49:13 This declares the essential equality between men and women but Islam does not see this as contradicting different roles played by men and women. For example, muslim men carry the heavy burden of family maintenance and are supposed to be the only, or the main, breadwinners supporting not only their wives and children but other married or widowed women in the family. If a mans wife does not wish to live with his family or anyone else, he must respect her wishes. The major responsibility which falls to the woman is creating a harmonious family atmosphere and bringing up the children. Women may kake up paid work outside the home but it is not expect ed of them as part of the equal partnership and many muslims feel women should only do so if there is a real need for the money. Mature muslim men and women are allowed to mix at work, in public places and social gatherings. Divorce Islam allows divorce if circumstances warrant or necessitate it. Islam has permitted divorce reluctantly, neither liking nor recommending it. The Prophet of Islam has said: Among lawful things, divorce is most disliked by Allah Islam has not made it necessary that the grounds of divorce should be publicized. It, however; does not mean that Islam views divorce lightly. In fact, publicity of grounds may not be of any positive consequence. The grounds may not be pronounced but genuine. On the other hand, the grounds may be stated and may in reality be false. Islam does not also want washing dirty linen of private affairs in public or in the court except in exceptional circumstances. It is for this reason that court comes in as a last resort in the Islamic scheme of separation of husband and wife. The Quran states as regards grounds of divorce in very general terms: And if you fear that the two (i.e husband and wife) may not be able to keep the limits ordered by Allah, there is no blame on either of them if she redeems herself (from the marriage tie) (2 : 229). The general ground of divorce in the Quran, therefore, is hopeless failure of one or both parties to discharge their marital duties and to consort with each other in kindness, peace and compassion. Long absence of husband without any information, long imprisonment, refusal to provide for wife, impotence etc. are some of the grounds on which wife can ask for divorce. Either party may take steps to divorce in case of chronicle disease, insanity, deceptive misrepresentation during marriage contract, desertion etc. A Muslim male is allowed three chances, that is to say, acts of divorce on three different occasions provided that each divorce is pronounced during the time when the wife is in the period of purity. A husband may divorce his wife once and let the Iddat (the period of waiting after divorce) pass. During the waiting period the two have the option of being reconciled. If however the waiting period passes without reconciliation, they stand fully divorced. If after the first divorce the husband is reconciled with his wife but the hostility and conflict begins all over again, he may divorce her a second time in the same manner as stated above. In this case also he can return to her during the Iddat (or waiting period). If however, after second reconciliation, he divorces the wife the third time, he can not take back the wife during the Iddat. She is totally prohibited for him. The lady, thereafter can marry any person she likes according to her choice. The wife can divorce her husband if this condition is stipulated in the marriage contract. This kind of divorce is called Delegated Divorce (Talaq Taffiz). Marriage can also be dissolved through mutual consent. This is called Khula in the technical language of Islamic law. Marriage can also be dissolved by judicial process through the court on complaint of the wife on the grounds explained before. One of the consequences of the divorce is the commencement of waiting period for the wife. This usually lasts three months. If there is a pregnancy, it lasts as long as pregnancy lasts. The waiting period is basically a term of probation during which reconciliation can be attempted. It is also required to establish whether the wife has conceived. It also allows time for planning the future. Maintenance of wife during the waiting period is on husband. The wife can not be expelled from her place of residence and he can not in any way harass her. These will constitute moral as well as criminal offence. In case of divorce, the young children remain in the custody of their divorced mother. However, the father has to provide the cost of maintenance of young children though they remain under the custody of mother. Islamic law of divorce is based on practical considerations. The process of separation is basically a matter of husband and wife. However; when conflict arises, attempts should be made for reconciliation. It has not made judicial process obligatory in divorce for reasons explained earlier. The intervention of court has nowhere reduced the number of divorce. Judicial process in Islam is the last resort in so far as divorce is concerned. Islamic law on divorce if followed in true spirit will enhance the dignity of man and woman, reduce conflict and ensure justice. The Holy Quran explicitly prohibits the divorcing husbands from taking back their marriage gifts no matter how expensive or valuable these gifts might be In the case of the wife choosing to end the marriage, she has to return the marriage gifts or money to her husband. Returning the marriage gifts in this case is a fair compensation for the husband who is keen to keep his wife while she chooses to leave him. But the majority of ulamma have agreed that to act unfairly against the husband is not allowed and the marriage cannot be annulled by such way. The Holy Quran has instructed Muslim men not to take back any of the gifts they have given to their wives except in the case of the wife choosing to dissolve the marriage. Also, a woman came to the Prophet Muhammad seeking the dissolution of her marriage, she told the Prophet that she did not have any complaints against her husbands character or manners. Her only problem was that she honestly did not like him to the extent of not being ab le to live with him any longer. The Prophet asked her: Would you give him his garden (the marriage gift he had given her) back? she said: Yes. The Prophet then instructed the man to take back his garden and accept the dissolution of the marriage. The children usually stay with their mother unless she is shown to be incapable or unsuitable but she loses the right of custody of her children if she remarries. Marriage The most important ingredients in a Muslim marriage are shared values and beliefs, so that even if a couple come from different cultures and backgrounds they possess the same basic world view, attitudes and habits which will bind them together. Many Muslims seem to marry their cousins, Islam neither encourages nor refuses this practise. The prophets seventh wife, Zaimab bint Jahsh, was his cousin, but he only married her when she was 39 after his foster son Zaid divorced her. Cousin marriages inbreeds genetic disorders, and makes it very hard for a couple to divorce from a failed marriage if other close relatives will be offended. Muslim boys may marry Christians and Jews, but Muslim girls are not permitted to marry non- Muslims because in Islam the children have to take the religion of the father, and so would bec ome non-Muslims. The prohet said : A woman should only be married to a person who is good enough for her or compatible to her. The prophet permitted marriages between people of vastly different social status and financial backgrounds, knowing it was not these factors which made for compatibility, but what they were like in their hearts. Do not marry only for a persons looks, their beauty might become the cause of moral decline. Do not marry for wealth, since this may become the cause of disobedience. Marry rather on the grounds of religious devotion. ( Haddith) Islam sees marriage as the only moral and legal status for a sexual relationship as it provides in public for the security and well being of man and woman. The ceremony itself is extremely simple and takes the form of a basic contract set in a social gathering. It can take place anywhere usually in a home in Muslim countries but in Britain it is most likely to be in a mosque. The imam does not need to be present and there is no fixed formula but it must be clear that both man and woman agree to the marriage and there may be readings from the Quran on the theme of married life. The contract- Aqd nikah- is written, as well as spoken, and bride and groom sign three copies. They keep one each and, in a Muslim country, the third is kept by officials. The Quran requires that the groom give the wife mahr- a sum of money or property or some other gift of value. It remains hers, whatever happens, and they agree between them what it is to be and when it is to be given. Jihad Arabic for exerting ones utmost efforts to a determined objective, such objective normally being the struggle against anything that is not good. Two kinds of jihad traditionally exist for mainstream Muslims: the greater (al-jihad al-akbar) and the lesser ( al-jihad al-asghar). The greater jihad is also known as jihad al-nafs, and is understood as an individuals inner, spiritual struggle against vice, passion, and ignorance. The lesser jihad is defined as meaning holy war against infidel (non-Muslim) lands and subjects. It has both legal and doctrinal significance in that it is prescribed by the Koran and mainstream Muslim hadiths (recorded sayings and actions ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad and accorded a status on a par with revelation). Holy war is the sole form of war that is theoretically permissable in mainstream Islam. Muslim law has traditionally divided up the world into dar al-Islam (abode of Islam) and dar al- harb (abode of war, that is, of non-Muslim rule). As Islam is the last, most superior and universal of mans divinely ordained religions, it is believed that the entire world must ultimately surrender to its r ule and law, if not its faith. Until that time, a jihad against non-Muslim neighbours and neighbouring lands is the duty of all adult, male, and able-bodied Muslims. According to this traditional view, Muslims who die in jihad automatically become martyrs of the faith and are awarded a special place in Paradise. According to the law-books, two kinds of non-Muslim enemies exist, kafir (pagans) and ahl al- kitab (people of the book). The term people of the book originally meant only Jews and Christians, but later on it included other groups such as followers of Zoroastrianism. People of the book need only submit to Muslim political authority to avoid or end jihad and may keep their original faith: their status, defined as dhimmi (a protected non-Muslim), is inferior to that of a Muslim and they must pay the prescribed jizya (poll tax). As for pagans, that is, those whom Muslims do not recognize as a people of the book, such as Buddhists and Hindus, they must either convert to Islam or suffer execution. This drastic alternative, however, was rarely enforced in practice. There can be no going back for a convert to Islam-be that person a dhimmi or pagan-since it is a capital offence to abandon Islam, even for a former religion with a recognized revelation. However, ways of avoiding the strict enforcement of the law were often found. Jihad can also be defensive, that is, for the purpose of protecting Muslim lands from non-Muslim incursions such as, for example, the crusades of the Christians in the Holy Land during the Middle Ages or the Spanish Reconquista. Some modern Muslim scholars have stressed the defensive aspect of jihad above others. In contrast to the Sunnis, some Muslim groups like the Imami and Bohora-Ismaili Shiites are forbidden from participating in offensive jihad. This is because for both sects the only person legitimately capable of conducting an offensive jihad is their Imam, and he is presently in occultation (that is, in hiding and incommunicado until the end of time). The two sects, however, are permitted participation in defensive jihad. I have been asked to evaluate the following statement The Quran would be more useful to everyone if it were translated into modern English. Whether the Quran may be translated from its original Arabic into another language, and, if so, under what circumstances a translation may be used, has also been a matter of dispute. Nevertheless, it has been translated by Muslims and non-Muslims into a variety of languages. Today there are many versions available in English and the other major languages of the world. Although it can now be read in at least 40 languages, all translations lose part of the inspiration and meaning, and are not treated with the same respect as the original. Since the Quran is believed to be from Allah, every word, every letter, is sacred to muslims. It is therefore considered very important to keep the Quran in the language in which it was first spoken i.e. Arabic. Muslims were taught to recite it, and it must still be learnt in Arabic. As Islam spread from Arabia, its language was adopted by a number of Islamic countries, and is still spoken in these countries today. Muslims in these countries should find the Quran quite easy to read, even though the style of modern Arabic has naturally changed since Muhammads time. In other countries, muslims need to learn enough Arabic to take part in their worship and to read the Quran. You can find translations of the Quran for people who do not know Arabic, or copies with both Arabic and another language for those who do not have Arabic as their first language, but muslims do not accept these translations as proper Qurans. The main argument used to defend the Divine authorship of the Quran is the incomparable quality of writing. Much of it is composed in rhyming Arabic and the language is particularly beautiful and graceful. The surahs were given in Arabic and, since it would be a sin to alter the word of Allah, Arabic remains the sacred language of Islam. Non- Arabic speaking muslims can use translations but the Quran is so important to them that many learn Arabic just so they can read it in its original form. Muslims and non-believers alike agree the full power and beauty of its writing can only be appreciated in the original. But for muslims it goes further than that. Translations can only be interpretations which cannot truly say what is said in Arabic. The combination of the words and rhythms in the original language- the way the Quran sounds when recited- is also an important part of its power. Muslims think of the Quran as a complete philosophy, a comprehensive description of the universe and the entirety of the law by which people must live. The longer and later Medina surahs stress Allahs merciful nature more fully, with extensive friendly practical advice on personal and family matters. The Quran is also the focus of Islamic art. Many individuals copies of the Book are major works of art in their own right with sublime Arabic calligraphy on superb hand-made paper, and high quality decorative leather and metal work. Figurative art is forbidden by classical Islam, especially the creation of images of Allah and the Prophets, and the astonishingly fine decorative art found in many mosques is largely based on Arabic calligraphy, woven into patterns repeating passages from the Book. Even the most sceptical non-believer, Muslims insist, is forced to admit that the Quran is a book of immense beauty and importance not least because it has now almost certain become the most widely read and memorised book in the world. The preface to one of the most widely available Quran in English, the Tahrike Tarsile translation, puts it like this: The Qurans miracle lies in its ability to offer at least something to non-believers and everything to believers. Learning large parts of the the Quran by heart is an important part of Muslim religious devotion and children start memorising it at an early age. In many Muslim countries learning the Quran by heart forms the basic curriculum of primary school education. Muslims who memorise its contents in their entirety are given the honourable title of al-hafiz.

Swot Analysis And Its Importance In Developing Marketing Essay

Swot Analysis And Its Importance In Developing Marketing Essay Faced with a constantly changing environment, each business unit needs to develop a marketing information system (MkIS) that is capable of tracking trends and developments within the marketplace. Each trend or development can then be categorized as an opportunity or a threat, and an assessment made of the feasibility and action needed if the organization is either to capitalize upon the opportunity or minimize the impact of the threat. Although SWOT analysis is one of the best-known and most frequently used tools within the strategic planning process, the quality of the outputs often suffer because of the relatively superficial manner in which it is conducted. There are several ways in which SWOT analyses can be made more rigorous, and therefore more strategically useful. STRENGTHS: Areas of (distinctive) competence that: Must always be looked at relative to the competition If managed properly, is the basis for competitive advantage Derive from the marketing asset base WEAKNESSES: Areas of relative disadvantage that: Indicate priorities for marketing improvement Highlight the areas and strategies that the planner should avoid THREATS: Trends within the environment with potentially negative impacts that: Increase the risks of a strategy Hinder the implementation of strategy Increase the resources required Reduce performance expectations OPPORTUNITIES: Environmental trends with positive outcomes that offer scope for higher levels of performance if pursued effectively: Highlight new areas for competitive advantage 2) SWOT ANALYSIS IS THEREFORE DESIGNED TO ACHIEVE TWO PRINCIPAL OBJECTIVES: 1) To separate meaningful data from that which is merely interesting 2) To discover what management must do to exploit its distinctive competencies within each of the market segments both now and in the longer term. However, in examining opportunities and threats, the reader needs to recognize that they can never be viewed as absolutes. What might appear at first sight to be an opportunity may not be so when examined against the organizations resources, its culture, the expectations of its stakeholders, the strategies available, or the feasibility of implementing the strategy. At the risk of oversimplification, however, the purpose of strategy formulation is to develop a strategy which will take advantage of the opportunities and overcome or circumvent the threats. For our purposes, an opportunity can be seen as any sector of the market in which the company would enjoy a competitive advantage. These opportunities can then be assessed according to their attractiveness and the organizations probability of success in this area; The probability of success is influenced by several factors, but most obviously by the extent to which the organizations strengths, and in particular its distinctive competences, match the key success requirements for operating effectively in the target market and exceed those of its competitors. Competence by itself is rarely sufficient in anything more than the short term since, given time, competitive forces will erode this competence. 2.1) IDENTIFYING STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES Our primary concern within this stage is with the ways in which organizations can most clearly identify their current position and the nature of their marketing capability. It is against the background of the picture that emerges from this analysis that the marketing planner should then be in a far better position to begin the process of deciding upon the detail of the organizations future direction and the ways in which strategy is to be formulated. The starting point in this process of strategic and marketing analysis involves a detailed marketing audit and review of marketing effectiveness. Together, the two techniques are designed to provide the strategist with a clear understanding of: à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ The organizations current market position à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ The nature of environmental opportunities and threats à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ The organizations ability to cope with the demands of this environment. The results of this analysis are then incorporated in a statement of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT), and subsequently a measure of capability. Although in many markets it is often a relatively simple process to identify a whole series of environmental opportunities, few organizations have the ability or the competences needed to capitalize upon more than a small number of these. Each business needs therefore to evaluate on a regular basis its strengths and weaknesses. Each factor is rated by management or an outside consultant according to whether it is a fundamental strength, a marginal strength, a neutral factor, a marginal weakness, or a fundamental weakness. By linking these ratings, a general picture of the organizations principal strengths and weaknesses emerges. Of course, not all of these factors are of equal importance either in an absolute sense or when it comes to succeeding with a specific business opportunity. Because of this, each factor should also be given a rating (high, medium or low) either for the business as a whole or for a particular marketing opportunity. Combining performance and importance levels in this way injects a greater sense of perspective to the analysis and leads to four possibilities emerging; in the form of a performance-importance matrix. Another way of looking at issues of performance and importance involves focusing specifically upon the organizations performance relative to the competition. On the basis of this sort of analysis it should be apparent that, even when a business has a major strength in a particular area, this strength does not invariably translate into a competitive advantage. There are several possible explanations for this, the two most prominent of which are that it may not be a competence that is of any real importance to customers, or that it is an area in which competitors are at least equally strong. It follows from this that, in order to benefit from the strength, it must be relatively greater than that of the competitor. Having identified the organizations weaknesses, the strategist needs to return to consider again the relative importance of these weaknesses. There is often little to be gained from overcoming all of the organizations weaknesses, since some are unimportant and the amount of effort needed to convert them to a strength would quite simply not be repaid. Equally, some strength is of little real strategic value and to use them in anything other than a peripheral way is likely to prove of little real value. Recognizing this, the marketing planner should focus upon those areas of opportunity in which the firm currently has major strengths or where, because of the size of the opportunity and the potential returns, it is likely to prove cost-effective in acquiring or developing new areas of strength. In order to make better use of the SWOT framework, Mr. Piercy proposes five guidelines: 1) Focus the SWOT upon a particular issue or element, such as a specific product market, a customer segment, a competitor, or the individual elements of the marketing mix. 2) Use the SWOT analysis as a mechanism for developing a shared vision for planning. This can be done by pooling ideas from a number of sources and achieving a team consensus about the future and the important issues. 3) The kind of corporate-level strategy pursued by the company 4) Business level strategy of the company and its nature. 5) Company Strategy and its control and structure for achieving that strategy 2.2)  [1]  SWOT ANALYSIS AND MACRO ENVIRONMENT FOR DECISION MAKERS Many changes from the macro environment have the potential to cripple even the best of strategies and must therefore be watched. Managers should note any changes in the environmental factors as conducive to innovation. Potential changes in exchange rates, especially unanticipated large ones, central bank policies that raise interest rates, and taxation laws, along with demographic and socio political changes, all have the potential to impact firm strategies. Managers should examine them carefully for potential threats and opportunities. In particular, they should examine the potential impact of changes in tax policies concerning the Internet. This analysis of a firms current performance, appraisal of its business model, appraisal of its competitors business models, analysis of industry attractiveness, assessment of its macro environment, projection of the evolution of the Internet, and a forecast of its environmental changes is sometimes called a strengths and weaknesses, opportuniti es, and threats (SWOT) analysis. After an analysis of where the firm is now, a manager may also decide not to pursue profits as previously planned but to hone the firms capabilities to fit another firms portfolio of capabilities so that it can be acquired by the other firm. On the other hand, a firm whose exit strategy had been to be acquired, with no intention of ever making profits, may decide that it now wants to become profitable after all. In all these cases, a firm has decided to move into new areas. It is now intent on doing certain things that it had not done before. If moving into these new areas requires entirely new capabilities, the objective to do so is sometimes referred to as a firms strategic intent. WAL-MART 3) COMPANY HISTORY AND ITS FOUNDERVISION 2Samuel Moore Walton, the billionaire boy scout of Bentonville, Arkansas, built an empire on a fervid belief in value, pioneered by ideas like empowerment, and revolutionized retailing in the process. Dead at 74 after a long fight with cancer, he did not invent the discount department store, although it hardly seems possible that he didnt. He grabbed hold of the leading edge of retailing in 1962 and never let go, creating a value-powered merchandising machine that seems certain to outlive his memory.. In 1994, the still-young company earned $2.3 billion on sales of $67 billion. A $1,650 investment in 100 Wal-Mart shares in 1970, when they began trading, is worth $3 million today. He taught American business that the vast amount of American people want value. He saw the future, and he helped make the future. According to a retail executive, while Walton was one of the great showmen of retailing, if he had been a television preacher hed have become Pope. As a manager he applied such concepts as a flat organization, empowerment, and gain-sharing long before any one gave them those names. In the 1950s, he shared information and profits with all employees. He ingested as much data as he could to get close to the customer and closer to the competition. He stressed flexibility and action over deliberation. Wal-Mart is ultimately a monument to consumers: it has saved them billions. Sam Walton truly believed that nothing happens until a customer walks into a store with a purpose, buys some thing, and walks out. His philosophy was simple: satisfy the customer. Operating nearly 2,000 stores in 47 states, Wal-Mart remains the leader in the discount store industry. In addition, with over 400 Sams Clubs, Wal-Mart is a major factor in the Warehouse Club industry. Combining general merchandise and groceries, Supercenters represent the companys fastest growing segment, with 65 to 70 stores planned in fiscal 1995 on a base of 68. Walton long ago wanted manufacturers to see themselves, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers as parts of a single customer-focused process rather than as participants in a series of transactions. He personally and permanently altered the relationship between manufacturers and retailers, which has historically been, to put it politely, antagonistic. About five years ago he asked Procter Gamble executives to view a focus group of Wal-Mart executives talking about their prickly relationship with the packaged-goods company. It was sobering. His strategy clearly was that we ought to be able to work together to lower the costs of both the manufacturer and the distributor and get lower costs for consumers. Walton got both sides to focus on distribution costs and how to cut them. Wal-Mart linked PG with its computers to allow automatic reordering, thus avoiding bulges in order cycles. With better coordination of buying, PG could plan more consistent manufacturing runs, rationalize distribution, and lower its costs, passing on some of the savings. This systematic approach is now in broad use throughout the industry. Walton has been described as a visionary, and he clearly was that. His vision was apparent in 1956 as a Ben Franklin variety store owner. To lure one of his first store managers, Bob Bogle, away from the state health depart ment, Walton showed him the books and offered to pay him 25 percent of the stores net profit in addition to salary. 4) STRATEGIC ANALYSIS OF WAL-MARTS SUCCESS-WAL-MARTS COMPETITIVE CAPABILITIES 4.1) Competitive Environmental Change Rivals are constantly changing their strategies and such changes, especially new game strategies, have to be watched very carefully. A firm is said to pursue a new game strategy if by performing value chain, value shop, or value configuration activities that differ from what the dominant logic of the industry dictates, or by performing the same activities differently than the logic dictates, the firm is able to offer superior customer value. Wal-Marts early strategies were new game strategies. It decided to move into small towns, saturate adjoining towns with stores, build distribution centers, and improve logistics, with an empowering culture and information technology to match. This allowed Wal-Mart to achieve high economies of scale and bargaining power over its suppliers. This in turn allowed the firm to offer its customers lower prices than its competitors. 3Low-cost operations as the result of a combination of high productivity, low over heads, low labour costs, better purchasing skills, a limited product range, or low-cost distribution. Amongst those to have achieved this are the low-cost supermarket chains. 4The global, or single brand, enables a product to adapt to new international opportunities. Travellers abroad, whether businessmen or tourists, are more likely to buy a brand they know and trust as it reduces the risk of the purchase. The greater the development of international media, the greater the opportunities for the single brand. The advent of Sky television and the increasing international coverage of satellite transmissions are examples of this widening reach. When a brand goes international, it can attract the interest of large retailers involved worldwide and successfully implemented by the like Wal-Mart to attract international customers. The global brand, having acquired a wider international presence and awareness, provides a lever for entering other markets. Be assumed to be: to maintain continued growth in the US and to extend domination internationally in targeted markets, including the Americas and Continental Europe. Its corporate objective is to achieve an annual growth above the average gained by the food retail industry in general, and above the average annual growth rate achieved by Wal-Mart over the last three years. An annual turnover growth rate of 5 per cent above in ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ation with pro ¬Ã‚ ts of 7 per cent might be set. Additional objectives (or targets) might be to increase customer loyalty as measured by customer repeat shopping visits to Wal-Mart outlets. Wal-Marts international marketing plan would cover the basic framework outlined in Table 9.1. It should indicate the groups business mission and associated corporate objectives. Thus, the Wal-Mart business mission could be assumed to be: to maintain continued growth in the US and to extend domination internationally in targeted markets, including the Americas and Continental Europe. Its corporate objective is to achieve an annual growth above the average gained by the food retail industry in general, and above the average annual growth rate achieved by Wal-Mart over the last three years. An annual turnover growth rate of 5 per cent above in ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ation with pro ¬Ã‚ ts of 7 per cent might be set. Additional objectives (or targets) might be to increase customer loyalty as measured by customer repeat shopping visits to Wal-Mart outlets. 4.2) SWOT ANALYSIS à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Ã‚  [5]  Strengths This Company has reputation of value for your money, convenience and a wide range of production all in one store. This company is famous among the world over customer with respect to value the customers money and providing vides range of goods of different categories. This Company has increased its market share very sharply with in few years the years both domestically and through acquisition globally. For example, it purchased the UK based Company ASDA engaged in the business of retailing. The Wal-Mart has a very powerful strength in incorporating information technology in its business. This is very simple way in which the company operates its logistic operations efficiently in international market and also able to procure goods on timely basis. The Wal-Mart basic aim to improve its HRM department and hired the best people in their profession. Talent is key to Wal-Marts business, and its invests time and resources into the training and retention of its people. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Weaknesses This is the fact that company is weak in some area of human resource management where it runs on vast span of control. The company sold the products of many products sector like clothing, food, electronics, etc and there is no flexibility to focus on some sector of economy as its competitors do their business. The Company claimed that it operates on a global basis but this is the fact that it has a presence in few other countries. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Opportunities It has the opportunity to take over, merge with or from of organization who are operated on the world basis and focus on Europe and Asian Markets. The Stores are only in a few countries and opportunity exists to expand in large consumer markets India and China. New locations and stores types are mobbing from large super centres to local malls. Continued strategy for the opening of large super centers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Threats AS this Company claimed that its brand name is No. 1 among the retailing business. On the other hand you are the target of competitors whether they are from local business market or from international market. As the company operate in international business market then there is a probability that the Company will face political and social problems in countries where this operate. Intense price competition in a threat. 5) CONCLUSION Completing a SWOT would have identified the threat as a focus on immigration and the possibility of lost crops due to un-harvested products. That threat turned to a weakness for those organizations that did not develop alternative strategies. For those who made the investments in increased mechanical harvesting, no business interruption occurred. For those who waited, it became a competitive disadvantage. Being able to forecast changes in the market and business will lead to insight regarding potential issues and opportunities to be faced in the future. The insights gained from engaging in this forecasting exercise can then be used to create plans of action to deal with the issues before they can have detrimental effects on the functioning of the business. Although SWOT analysis is a potentially useful input to the strategic planning process, in practice it often suffers from a number of weaknesses. Amongst the most common of these is that: à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ The planner fails to relate strengths and weaknesses to critical success factors à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ Strengths and weaknesses are seen in absolute terms rather than in relation to the competition à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ The elements of the analysis are insufficiently specific à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ Competitors capabilities are underestimated and/or misunderstood à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ The focus is upon marketing-specific issues rather than reflecting a broader company perspective à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ Emphasis is placed largely upon the hard or quantifiable elements and fails to take account of managerial attitudes, cultures, capabilities and competencies. SWOT analysis can also be made more effective by thinking: à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ To what extent has the relative importance of the various elements been identified? à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ To what extent have the implications of each of the elements been examined? à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ To what extent does the management team really recognize the significance of the elements? à ¢Ã… ¾Ã‚ ¡ To what extent have attempts been made in the past to manage the SWOT analysis outcomes proactively?

Outline Of Consciousness :: essays research papers

Section 4: Consciousness Pages 114-117 I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Defining Consciousness a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consciousness is commonly defined as being aware of the immediate environment. i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, knowing when to go to class or work. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consciousness also deals with awareness of your thoughts, feelings, and memories. i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Examples 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Making plans for dates. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Getting annoyed at your performance in school. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thinking back about good times with your friends. c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early psychologists and their studies i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When early psychologists studied the mind, they studied consciousness. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  William Wundt (late 1880’s) had subjects report contents of consciousness while working, falling asleep, and sitting still. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sigmund Freud (1900’s) wrote that needs, desires, and influences are part of the conscious and people have different levels of consciousness. d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dualism i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Started by French philosopher Rene Descartes stated that mind and body are separate, but interacting. ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dualism says that one thing cannot exist without it’s opposite. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Light cannot exist without darkness. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Good cannot exist without the presence of evil. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The body cannot function without the mind, and so forth. e.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Materialism i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Psychologists say that our mental activity is rooted in the brain. ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dominant perspective with modern psychologists. iii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tends to take a less black and white view of â€Å"consciousness† versus â€Å"unconsciousness.† iv.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Psychologists say that you are more aware of certain mental processes over others. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, doing the same routine at work and time seems to go by faster. v.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cognitive psychologists ignore the unconscious. They call it the deliberate versus the automatic. f.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Different levels of Consciousness i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Freud and other cognitive psychologists came up with this theory. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consciousness is a continuum. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alert attention b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dreaming c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hypnosis d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Drug-induced states 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Someone who isn’t paying attention is still conscious, just not â€Å"as conscious† as someone that is alert. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Believes that drinking will bring you into a lower level of consciousness. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If you are in a state of consciousness that is different from what you normally are, you are in an altered state of consciousness. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you are asleep, however, you are in a state of â€Å"turned off† consciousness. (Hobson, 1994) ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Metacognition 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being able to think about their own thinking. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  May allow them to access levels of consciousness that are not available to other people. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, people’s natural sleep timers. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Researched by asking people to track their consciousness, alertness, and moods over a length of time. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Found out that there is a natural rhythm to consciousness. iii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Functions of Consciousness 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Allows us to monitor our mental and physical states. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Allows us to control our mental and physical states, to an extant. iv.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is consciousness? 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  General state of being aware of and responsive to events in the environment, as well as one’s own mental processes. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Theories of Consciousness a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Several researchers suggested biological theories of consciousness. i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Used evolution of the brain as the key to consciousness. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jaynes (1976) believed that consciousness came from the different functions of the hemispheres of the brain. Outline Of Consciousness :: essays research papers Section 4: Consciousness Pages 114-117 I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Defining Consciousness a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consciousness is commonly defined as being aware of the immediate environment. i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, knowing when to go to class or work. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consciousness also deals with awareness of your thoughts, feelings, and memories. i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Examples 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Making plans for dates. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Getting annoyed at your performance in school. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thinking back about good times with your friends. c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early psychologists and their studies i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When early psychologists studied the mind, they studied consciousness. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  William Wundt (late 1880’s) had subjects report contents of consciousness while working, falling asleep, and sitting still. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sigmund Freud (1900’s) wrote that needs, desires, and influences are part of the conscious and people have different levels of consciousness. d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dualism i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Started by French philosopher Rene Descartes stated that mind and body are separate, but interacting. ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dualism says that one thing cannot exist without it’s opposite. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Light cannot exist without darkness. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Good cannot exist without the presence of evil. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The body cannot function without the mind, and so forth. e.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Materialism i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Psychologists say that our mental activity is rooted in the brain. ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dominant perspective with modern psychologists. iii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tends to take a less black and white view of â€Å"consciousness† versus â€Å"unconsciousness.† iv.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Psychologists say that you are more aware of certain mental processes over others. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, doing the same routine at work and time seems to go by faster. v.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cognitive psychologists ignore the unconscious. They call it the deliberate versus the automatic. f.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Different levels of Consciousness i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Freud and other cognitive psychologists came up with this theory. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consciousness is a continuum. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alert attention b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dreaming c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hypnosis d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Drug-induced states 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Someone who isn’t paying attention is still conscious, just not â€Å"as conscious† as someone that is alert. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Believes that drinking will bring you into a lower level of consciousness. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If you are in a state of consciousness that is different from what you normally are, you are in an altered state of consciousness. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you are asleep, however, you are in a state of â€Å"turned off† consciousness. (Hobson, 1994) ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Metacognition 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being able to think about their own thinking. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  May allow them to access levels of consciousness that are not available to other people. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For example, people’s natural sleep timers. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Researched by asking people to track their consciousness, alertness, and moods over a length of time. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Found out that there is a natural rhythm to consciousness. iii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Functions of Consciousness 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Allows us to monitor our mental and physical states. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Allows us to control our mental and physical states, to an extant. iv.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is consciousness? 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  General state of being aware of and responsive to events in the environment, as well as one’s own mental processes. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Theories of Consciousness a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Several researchers suggested biological theories of consciousness. i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Used evolution of the brain as the key to consciousness. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jaynes (1976) believed that consciousness came from the different functions of the hemispheres of the brain.

Memoirs Of An Invisible Man :: essays research papers

Memoirs of an Invisible Man   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After being caught in a freak industrial accident in New Jersey, Nicholas Haloway decides to try to survive after the accident rendered him absolutely invisible. Soon he learns that no one must know of his invisibilty. Soon afterwards, the army starts searching for him because they feel that his invisibility would be extremely useful in Intillegence missions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Headed by David Jenkens, the project soon invades his apartment, forcing him to leave and find a new place in the city to stay. When he decides to stay at his club, he establishes a daily routine where he accomplishes the task of finding food and sustaining himself in the club. Every day that passes, Nick begins to feel that the government is closer, a few weeks later, David Jenkins shows up at his club and starts to install special doors that would prevent his escape. Nick is now faced with a difficult situation, he has to leave the club, but he also has to leave what has become almost like a home for him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As he finds another club to settle in, Jenkens shows up and begins to raid that club as well. Now Nick is convinced that Jenkens is going to capture him unless he finds a more valid hiding place. Soon Nick begins to search out empty apartments in Manhattan, but finds that Jenkens has once again started to raid empty apartments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nick knows that for his survival, he needs to find a way to keep him financially healthy and have a permanent home that would be almost impossible for Jenkens to trace. Upon arrival at an empty apartment, Nick notices the name on one of the Envelopes, Johnothan R, Crosby. Nick also finds out that the Crosbys live in another country most of the time and their apartment would suit him fine for the temporary time being. First, to prevent Jenkens from finding him, he follow one of Jenken’s men to the office where the headquaters of the investigation are housed, he then burn up most of the papers in the office so that the investigation would lose every thing that they had found.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After knowing that it would be difficult for Jenkens to locate him now, he settles down and creates a stock porfolio with a broker. Knowing that it would be almost impossible to for him to guarentee that he would make enough money on the stock market, he devises a plan to secretly spy on people and find secrets of certain markets and places money on the winning stocks.

Family Values, Personal Values Essay -- Ethnicity Culture Families Val

Family Values and Unity There are so many various types of people with different ethnic backgrounds, culture and manner of living that are the cause of distinct values in a family. These families have poor, mediocre or virtuous family values, however what one may consider as a mediocre family value may seem poor to someone else and vice-versa. These family values differ from family to family world-wide. The most significant values are family unity, honesty and education. Family unity, is a family being together in blissful harmony on holidays. Family unity is regardless how bad a situation may be it will bring us closer together and make our bond stronger. Family unity is my family watching me grow from infancy to adulthood, guiding me with good values. Family unity is communicating with each other. Unfortunately, my parents were seldom around during my childhood stages. Therefore they were rarely home to guide me through good family values. Now that I am an adult my parents are persistent to spend time with me and teach me values not taught to me when I was a child. I believe it's like teaching an old dog new tricks. A child needs direction from the childhood up to adulthood not the reverse. I recall coming home from school to an empty house. My parents were working to provide us with a home, things we needed and wanted. Regardless, as a child a family was just as important. A popular soul singer, Luther Vandross, sang a song whose lyrics expla...

Revivalism Essay

â€Å"Revivalism is an authentic Afro-Christian religious folk form that evolved during the eighteenth to nineteenth century. Initially, it was the native Baptist Christians who joined forces with the Moravians, and other non-conformist churches to become the forerunners of the movement. However, Jamaica was said to have experienced a religious movement called the Great Revival in 1861, which saw the incorporation of much more African retention in the movement. Pocomania is more African in form while Zion is more Christian oriented. † [1] Upon preparing to embark this journey, I was a bit disgruntled that I had to wake up in the wee hours of the morning to go this â€Å"Watt Town† excursion, but I still approached with a open mind, though I had an idea of what to expect, seeing that I was already acquainted with quite a few Revivalists. Honestly I expected it to be a waste of time, but upon seeing the fellowship of my friends, while waiting on the buses which were scheduled to take us on our journey it got easier and easier, we engaged in jokes and hymns we swore were Revivalist hymns but Mr. Grey quickly busted our bubble and told us that those hymns were Pentecostal. We were greeted by a semi-pleasant but slow bus driver, but the vibe in our bus quickly took our minds off the length of the journey. I view Revivalists as highly religious people who are in tune with spirits with from various realms, known as Heaven, Earth and Ground spirit realms, I met with a lot of different Revivalists, but what I found rather interesting was the fact that the core of what they were saying were similar but they were also many subtle differences, For example I met with a man, whose name is Joseph Whitter, of the Olivette Seventh day church. nd he seemed to be quite respected in the church community, he blatantly stated at the beginning of the conversation that, â€Å"Revivalism is the only way to be saved†, we had a long drawn out discussion on what are my personal views on religion and the opening statement he made, where I told him that I strongly disagree with that statement and I believe that there is only one God and peace and love is the ultimate goa l, which everyone should try to achieve, no matter what religion one identifies with. I then met with Miss. Barbara Harper of the same church, Olivette Seventh day church, and she stated that people should go to any church they want to go to and do anything that is truly pleasing to God, when I mentioned what her church brother thought about the same thing, she said that there is no one way to get to heaven and that people spend more of their time in competition with other denominations and religions rather than giving praises to the most high. I laughed a bit and I was in total agreement with her statement. We then started to talk about her life, and how she was before she identified that Revivalism was for her, I could see that the movement actually helped her and improved her life, before moving on I thanked her for being so honest and reasoning with me, telling her that I would listen to her talk any day for she had a liberal and open mind and I absolutely hated radical minded people, who try to force their doctrines and beliefs down peoples throats. When we finally arrived at Watt Town, after our extra long journey I had no idea of what I was about to witness, the site was like nothing I had seen before, I was greeted by what had seemed to be hundreds of people, I discovered that Watt Town was having what had seemed like an inter -church convention. I saw children from various schools and young adults like our selves there to see this feat. One of the first things I noticed about the Revivalists was they were wearing different uniforms in different styles and colours, I wondered and asked why were they dressed like this and a kind lady told me that each church was represented by different uniforms. The seal is the focal point of the church; this is where the angels are believed to manifest themselves. This is the most sacred area of the ground and is a welcoming tool. The seal is a dominant feature in all revivalist churches because the seal encourages spirits which come and possess the members, enabling them to carry out their works of healing and worship. It is advised that one should walk around the seal three times to pay respect to the Tribune God. Some seals can be seen with silver coins in them, this is payment to the spirits for their help. The flags and banners we saw at the front play a very important role in the revivalism. A tall pole usually marks a revival ground. The flags on the pole are used to attack passing spirits, the attraction of spirits is very important to revivalism because they believe in many spirits and that they can be appeased or summoned to assist in their day-to-day lives. Each banner has its own purpose. Green means anything of nature, Blue and white means peace, pink love and red stands for the blood of Jesus. Upon venturing to the top of the structure, some pebbles started to rain from a roof top, some hitting my head, not understanding anything about what was going on yet, I didn’t take kindly to this, that confused me a bit more than I already was. When a group of us finally got to the top we noticed the different worship circles/prayer group, and I was pleased by some as I saw some circles which were mixed with members of different churches, this showed me that pride was not an issue and did not hinder worship, and the main goal, magnifying the most high, I stood in amazement right next to two worship circles and I heard various choruses, some I had heard before, some I had not, I was familiar with songs such as â€Å"Madda de great stone got to move† and â€Å"Rock oh! Rock holy, rock oh! Rock holy†. Being a musician I enjoyed this aspect of the excursion, identifying the keys and the chord progressions that would go with their simple but effective melodies. I noticed that even though their uniforms were different, they had many things in common, I noticed that many of them had head wraps with various pieces of stationery in the wraps, I laughed at this sight because I thought they were taking notes or something, but as I went on and I learned more I discovered that the pencils, rulers and scissors that I saw resting in their head wraps had special significance. The pencils and rulers signifies healing among the followers, the scissors were carried around by a specific set of people, known as the healers, who use the scissors to literally cut evil from around the persons being healed, as demonstrated to us by a young man named Otis. A few of the Revivalists were also seen carrying around a meter ruler, this was given to people who had been living a righteous life and who were slated to be married. We saw some people washing their face with sugar water, this was said to bring clearance and purity, the prayer shawl was said to represent the Tribe of Judah, as we learned that, like the Rastafarians there was a lot of African roots in Revivalism also, and they used red green and gold to identify with Ethiopia and Ghana. When I inquired about a lamp I saw an elderly woman carrying around, she said that the lamp also represents healing and spiritual light because revivalists don’t walk in the darkness. These healing symbols were brought from Africa with the slaves and became an integral part of the revivalist healing services. As a result the present day revivalist has maintained the practice. I asked some Revivalists of their actual occupations and from the replies I found out that they were either day workers, higglers or fishermen, (more than likely belonging to the lower class) I saw that this must have contributed to the scornful treatment by mainstream and middle/upper class Christians, They consider them to be highly superstitious, pagan, primitive and comical in ritual behaviors especially when they suspect them of practicing obeah. The disdain heaped on the lower class involved in revivalism can be traced to colonialism. Stratification was practiced on the plantation not only from the perspective of whites to none whites or but also among the blacks. The free slave felt himself above the house slave who felt they were superior to the field slaves and there was further stratification in that group depending on the gang to which they belong. Seaga, in his writings in the 1980’s explained that Revivalism also has different levels within its structure. There is the Leader who is the central figure of importance; below the leader are the armour bearer, shepherd boy and mother. The leader is never usually questioned on the reason for ritual observances. The ritualistic forms of Revivalism takes three major forms such as prayer meeting, street meeting and rituals for specific purposes for example tables, altars and baths. The meetings are usually opened to the public. Revivalism is divided into two groups, Zion and Pocomania, Pocomania is more African in form while Zion is more Christian oriented. they are referred to as 2 different spiritual groups the 60 and 61, the 60 spirit (Zion) are persons who believe in only one God, the Heavenly spirits, archangels, saints and angels. ho are viewed as firmly rooted and committed Christian. The 61 (Pocomania) spirit comprises of individuals who take commands from earth-bound spirits are the â€Å"Fallen Angels† (satanic powers), from God and from The Ground spirits are those of the human dead that are not biblically mentioned. I noticed that the people of the 60 spirit, look down the 61 in a way which gave me a feeling of segregation between both of the groups. I noticed that like other Christians, Revivalists also go on fasting sessions but they can’t just get up and fast they have to be ordered by the holy spirit. Also apart a Revivalists culture includes heavy usage of flowers they believe that when you place the flowers in water and go to sleep you dream see your future, whether it brings destruction or fortune. Some of my views on Revivalists were different after the trip, previously I thought that, Revivalists only went to church like other Christians and the worship was similar but I was mistaken, I also thought that they used instruments but I discovered that their bodies were their instruments, stomping and grunting to help them keep time and to provide percussive sounds. In my opinion the greatest gift Revivalists can give to the Jamaican culture, is their sense of unity, having being bashed for many many years, I saw that these people remained strong and stood firm for what they believe. That is what many religions and people of Jamaica need to survive through good times and bad, this was what I took away from the journey, and if I didn’t take anything else, I was glad I took this quality from the Revivalists, unity is strength and they will forever be a constant reminder of that value.